By Emma Westhoff*
My research question addressed whether coffee has ever been considered an intoxicant (khamr) in Islamic jurisprudence and thus prohibited for consumption by Muslims. I began by addressing the question to ChatGPT. In response to my prompt, "What are the various opinions in Islamic law on whether coffee is prohibited as an intoxicant?" the AI chatbot produced the following response:
The opinions on whether coffee is prohibited in Islamic law largely revolve around its effects and its classification as an intoxicant. Here's a summary of the main perspectives:
- Permissibility: The majority of scholars agree that coffee is permissible. They argue that it does not intoxicate in the way alcohol does, as it does not impair judgment or lead to loss of self-control. Coffee is viewed as a stimulant rather than an intoxicant.
- Historical Context: Some early scholars were concerned about coffee's stimulating effects, with debates emerging during its introduction in the Islamic world. However, over time, it gained widespread acceptance.
- Minority Opinions: A few scholars, particularly in the past, considered coffee to be haram (prohibited) due to its stimulating properties. They argued that anything that alters the mind or behavior could be problematic, drawing parallels to alcohol.
- Cultural Practices: In many Muslim cultures, coffee is an integral part of social life, further supporting its acceptance as a permissible beverage.
- Modern Views: Contemporary scholars often emphasize moderation and personal choice, focusing on the health aspects rather than labeling coffee as inherently harmful.
Overall, while there may be historical and minority views against coffee, the prevailing opinion in Islamic jurisprudence is that it is permissible to consume.
I prompted the bot to tell me more about the minority opinions that considered coffee haram and their reasoning, the specific Islamic scholars and sources that have been most important in answering this question, and the most prominent opinions that considered coffee haram. The responses at this point became somewhat repetitive, although did introduce additional historical and social context, the names of some majority scholars, and other factors that may be weighed by a jurist ruling on the issue. Interestingly, despite multiple targeted prompts, the AI never produced any specific minority sources that ruled against the permissibility of coffee. See the appendix for a full account of my prompts and ChatGPT's responses.
I then began my independent research on the same question. The Islamic prohibition on intoxicating substances is grounded in the Qur'ānic text. Some verses, such as Qur'ān 2:219 and 4:43, discourage the consumption of alcohol in the context of prayer or assert that the benefits of alcohol consumption are outweighed by its sinfulness. Qur'ān 5:90 is fairly definitive in its declaration that intoxicants (khamr) "are all evil of Satan's handiwork," urging believers to "shun them so you may be successful."[1] Consumption of alcohol is further condemned in a number of strongly-worded ḥadīth.[2] Over the centuries, scholars have discussed whether it is the intoxicant itself or the state of intoxication that is prohibited and whether the prohibition applies only to certain kinds of alcoholic drinks (specifically grape and date wine), arriving at the general consensus that consumption of all varieties of alcohol are prohibited entirely.[3] Similar discussions sought to resolve the initially ambiguous legal status of coffee after its introduction into the Islamic world, with the generally consensus settling on its permissibility.[4]
Coffee, unlike alcohol, is not mentioned in the Qur'ān. Because of this, rulings on the permissibility of consuming coffee have often centered on analogizing the effects of the two substances.[5] Islamic tradition has long considered the intoxicating effects of alcohol to be a danger to both the sacred and the profane and a potential obstacle for believers attempting to carry out the commands of God.[6] Contemporary jurists continue to warn about the dangers of alcohol in regard to everything from preventing prayer, encouraging unlawful sexual relations and incest, and generating "shame, regret, and disgrace."[7] Supporters of the lawfulness of coffee therefore found their most successful arguments in the simple fact that coffee does not have the same effects on the mental state of the drinker that alcohol does, and that coffee may even be seen to have the opposite effect.[8] Coffee's effect on one's mental state was even argued to be desirable, and sought with an entirely different intention than the pursuit of drunkenness.[9] Proponents of coffee emphasized that the beverage, unlike alcohol, does not pose a danger to one's relationship with God: "One drinks coffee with the name of the Lord on his lips, and stays awake, while the person who seeks wanton delight in intoxicants disregards the Lord, and gets drunk."[10] Some scholars relied on experimentation to determine the exact effects of coffee to inform their ruling and discredit the idea that consuming coffee had substantial adverse effects.[11] The lack of evidence of prohibiting factors suggested to some that coffee belonged under the default status of permissibility.[12]
Formal juristic opposition to coffee came to a head in Mecca and Cairo in the sixteenth century, by which time coffee was nearly ubiquitous in both cities.[13] Attempts to ban coffee itself were short-lived and unsuccessful, with opposing sides depicting the scholars (most notably Khā'ir Beg al-Mi'mar of Mecca and Aḥmad b. ʿAbd al-Haqq al-Sunbaṭī of Cairo) and medical experts responsible as either men of great piety, misguided fanatics, or self-interested hypocrites.[14] Outside of a vocal minority, the consumption of coffee was so widely spread and deeply entrenched among Muslim jurists and Muslim society at large that pro-coffee jurists supported their argument with the concept of ijmāʿ, or consensus, which posits that a point of law agreed upon by the learned community as a whole is generally taken to be valid.[15]
Rather than being a strict binary, modern scholarship identifies a wide range of positions taken by jurists in the early coffee controversies.[16] Consumption of coffee was often initially, although by no means exclusively, associated with Sufi scholars, who used coffee as part of their daily devotions, praising its properties and its ability to replace more questionable stimulants such as hashish.[17] Some jurists' relatively lukewarm or outright oppositional reception of coffee can be attributed more to concerns of the social ills and negative effects on personal integrity and standing that came to be associated with its consumption.[18] Muḥammad b. al-ʿArrāq, for example, opposed the existence of the coffeehouses of the time as places of undesirable behavior, but did not oppose the consumption of coffee itself.[19] Proposed solutions aside from outright prohibition included limitations on quantity of consumption and the location of consumption.[20] The opposition's failure to settle on one specific reason for coffee's impermissibility can be seen as a contributing factor to their ultimate failure.[21] Similarly, a lack of evidence of intoxicating effects analogous to wine and a failure to prove harm great enough to justify an outright ban proved too great a weakness for the zealous yet severely outnumbered minority to overcome.[22]
The results from my inquiry with ChatGPT and my independent research differed in some notable ways. The most prominent is a notable lack of detail. While the legal sources involved in this controversy are old and presumably primarily in Arabic, the English-language sources I consulted in my independent research contained a wealth of personal names and specific details as to dates, locations, and events surrounding the legal controversy that ChatGPT's failure to produce any specific details as to minority opinion holders—even when specifically prompted to do so—stood out in contrast. The few names that the AI did produce were purportedly majority scholars, and did not seem to overlap substantially with the scholars cited in the independent research texts. Interestingly, ChatGPT seemed to misrepresent the Sufi role in the controversy, depicting them as opposed to the potentially distracting effects of the beverage. In reality, Sufis were among the earliest and most ardent supporters of coffee consumption. Additionally, with such limited responses and so few anchoring details, it was difficult to gauge the relative weight of each listed factor and its level of impact on contemporary and historical scholarship. The responses were repetitive, and each subsequent generation did little to add detail or build meaningfully on earlier information. The sources I discovered during my independent research were much clearer in presenting the prevalence of various factors, scholars, and events and in building on earlier sources.
Overall, however, ChatGPT did seem to grasp the general holdings and broad progression of events. It correctly laid out the majority opinion, the concerns of some minority scholars, the role of coffee in the social life of Muslim societies, and the essential parallels (or lack thereof) to alcohol in determining the final ruling. It also correctly identified the key time period of the controversy. While its account was at times oversimplified, and independent review was essential to gain a more nuanced understanding of the issue, its general accuracy was impressive and a more solid foundation for further research than I had anticipated.
Appendix: ChatGPT Prompts and Responses
Prompt One:
What are the various opinions in Islamic law on whether coffee is prohibited as an intoxicant?
Response One:
The opinions on whether coffee is prohibited in Islamic law largely revolve around its effects and its classification as an intoxicant. Here's a summary of the main perspectives:
- **Permissibility**: The majority of scholars agree that coffee is permissible. They argue that it does not intoxicate in the way alcohol does, as it does not impair judgment or lead to loss of self-control. Coffee is viewed as a stimulant rather than an intoxicant.
- **Historical Context**: Some early scholars were concerned about coffee's stimulating effects, with debates emerging during its introduction in the Islamic world. However, over time, it gained widespread acceptance.
- **Minority Opinions**: A few scholars, particularly in the past, considered coffee to be haram (prohibited) due to its stimulating properties. They argued that anything that alters the mind or behavior could be problematic, drawing parallels to alcohol.
- **Cultural Practices**: In many Muslim cultures, coffee is an integral part of social life, further supporting its acceptance as a permissible beverage.
- **Modern Views**: Contemporary scholars often emphasize moderation and personal choice, focusing on the health aspects rather than labeling coffee as inherently harmful.
Overall, while there may be historical and minority views against coffee, the prevailing opinion in Islamic jurisprudence is that it is permissible to consume.
Prompt Two:
Tell me more about the minority opinions that consider coffee haram and why.
Response Two:
The minority opinions that consider coffee haram (prohibited) primarily stem from concerns about its stimulating effects and its potential to alter a person's state of mind. Here are some key points regarding these views:
- **Intoxication Concerns**: Some scholars draw parallels between coffee and intoxicants like alcohol. They argue that anything that alters a person's mental state could lead to undesirable behavior or impair judgment, similar to intoxicants.
- **Historical Context**: In the early days of coffee consumption, especially in the 15th and 16th centuries, there were debates among scholars about its effects. Some feared that its stimulating properties could lead to addiction or be associated with unruly behavior, particularly in social settings.
- **Sufi Practices**: In certain Sufi circles, coffee was sometimes associated with gatherings that included excessive indulgence or distraction from spiritual practices. This led some scholars to view it with suspicion.
- **Health Concerns**: Some scholars have cited potential health risks associated with excessive coffee consumption, arguing that anything harmful to the body or mind should be avoided in Islam.
- **Cultural Resistance**: In some regions, local customs and cultural practices influenced scholarly opinions. Where coffee was viewed negatively due to its association with certain social behaviors, it might have been labeled haram.
Despite these concerns, such views remain in the minority, and the dominant scholarly opinion today is that coffee is permissible, as its benefits and cultural significance outweigh the concerns.
Prompt Three:
What specific Islamic sources and scholars have been most important in answering this question?
Response Three:
Several Islamic sources and scholars have played significant roles in addressing the permissibility of coffee. Here are some key figures and texts:
- **Al-Ghazali (1058–1111)**: As a prominent Islamic theologian and philosopher, Al-Ghazali discussed various forms of enjoyment and their impact on spirituality. His works contributed to a nuanced understanding of substances like coffee, often emphasizing moderation rather than outright prohibition.
- **Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406)**: The historian and philosopher Ibn Khaldun mentioned coffee in his writings and considered its social and cultural aspects. He noted its popularity in gatherings and its role in social cohesion.
- **Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328)**: Although primarily known for his views on other subjects, Ibn Taymiyyah also engaged in discussions about the effects of stimulants. He often favored moderation in consumption, which would apply to coffee as well.
- **Local Scholarly Consensus**: In regions where coffee became popular, local scholars often issued fatwas (legal opinions) endorsing its permissibility, emphasizing its cultural significance and social benefits. This includes fatwas from scholars in places like the Ottoman Empire, where coffee houses became important social venues.
- **Contemporary Scholars**: Modern scholars, such as Yusuf al-Qaradawi, have reinforced the permissibility of coffee, focusing on its effects and arguing against its classification as an intoxicant. They emphasize a balanced approach to consumption.
- **Hadith and Historical Texts**: While there are no specific hadith directly addressing coffee, scholars have analyzed historical texts and anecdotes regarding its introduction and use, contributing to the broader understanding of its acceptability.
These scholars and sources collectively contribute to the predominant view that coffee is permissible within Islamic law, while also acknowledging the historical context and cultural significance surrounding its consumption.
Prompt Four:
What are the most prominent opinions that consider coffee haram?
Response Four:
The opinions that consider coffee haram (prohibited) are less common but typically stem from a few key arguments. Here are the most prominent viewpoints:
- **Intoxicating Effects**: Some scholars argue that coffee, due to its caffeine content, has stimulating effects that can alter a person's state of mind. They draw parallels to alcohol and other intoxicants, suggesting that any substance that can impair judgment or lead to dependency may be considered haram.
- **Addiction Concerns**: There is a belief that regular consumption of coffee can lead to addiction or dependency. Scholars who hold this view might argue that anything that leads to harmful habits should be avoided in Islam.
- **Health Risks**: Some scholars express concerns about the health implications of excessive coffee consumption, linking it to negative health effects such as anxiety, insomnia, and heart issues. They may argue that Islam encourages the preservation of health and well-being, and anything harmful should be avoided.
- **Cultural and Social Concerns**: In certain historical and cultural contexts, coffee was associated with social gatherings that could lead to distractions from religious obligations or encourage irresponsible behavior. Some scholars argued against its consumption on these grounds.
- **Sufi Resistance**: In some Sufi circles, coffee was viewed negatively because it was associated with excessive socializing and distraction from spiritual practices. This perspective contributed to some scholars' hesitance to endorse its consumption.
While these viewpoints exist, they are largely overshadowed by the prevailing opinion that coffee is permissible. Nonetheless, they reflect the diversity of thought within Islamic scholarship regarding substances that affect the mind and body.
Notes:
* Emma Westhoff is a second-year JD student at Harvard Law School. She received her bachelors in linguistics from Brigham Young University. She is interested in interfaith work and the intersection of law and religion, particularly as it affects minority religious groups.
[1] "Surah Al-Ma'idah," Qur'ān 5:90, Quran.com, accessed November 2024, https://quran.com/5?startingVerse=90.
[2] Muslims in Alien Society: Prohibition of Alcohol in Islam (Nairobi: Ikhwan Limited, n.d.), 4–9, https://sunnahonline.com/ilm/The_Prohibition_of_Alcohol_in_Islam.pdf.
[3] Mustapha Sheikh and Tajul Islam, "Islam, Alcohol and Identity: Towards a Critical Muslim Studies Approach," ReOrient 3, no. 2 (Spring 2018): 187.
[4] Najam Haider, "Contesting Intoxication: Early Islamic Debates over the Lawfulness of Alcoholic Beverages," Islamic Law and Society 20 (2013): 73.
[5] Ralph Hattox, Coffee and Coffeehouses: The Origins of a Social Beverage in the Medieval Near East (University of Washington Press, 2014), 46.
[6] Kathryn Kueny, The Rhetoric of Sobriety: Wine in Early Islam (State University of New York Press, 2001), xi–xii.
[7] Shaykh Muhammad Saalih Al-Munajjid, "Prohibition of Drinking Alcohol in Islam," Islam Question & Answer, accessed November 2024, https://islamqa.info/amp/en/answers/38145.
[8] Hattox, Coffee and Coffeehouses, 59.
[9] Ibid., 59–60.
[10] Ibid., 59.
[11] Massoud Vahedi, "Coffee was once Ḥarām? Dispelling Popular Myths regarding a Nuanced Legal Issue," Islamic Studies 60, no. 2 (Summer 2021): 136.
[12] Ibid., 149–50.
[13] Hattox, Coffee and Coffeehouses, 29–30, 38.
[14] Ibid., 29–40.
[15] Ibid., 58.
[16] Vahedi, "Coffee was once Ḥarām?," 130.
[17] Ibid., 132.
[18] Ibid., 144–45.
[19] Hattox, Coffee and Coffeehouses, 37.
[20] Vahedi, "Coffee was once Ḥarām?," 144–46.
[21] Ibid., 146.
[22] Ibid., 153–54.
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