By John Burden*
During the ninth and tenth centuries, four eponymous schools of Islamic jurisprudence (madhāhib, s. madhhab) emerged as leaders in the Sunnī world: the Ḥanafī, Mālikī, Shāfiʿī and Ḥanbalī. By the twelfth century, they were dominant. Why did the founders of these schools—Abū Ḥanīfa, Mālik ibn 'Anas, al-Shāfiʿī, and Ibn Ḥanbal—succeed where others failed? This essay will attempt to answer this question by examining the biographies of the four founders, concluding that several intellectual, socio-political, and personal factors contributed to their success, but that two of them were indispensable. First, a successful founder needed to develop an important new methodological approach to fiqh. Second, a successful founder needed to have many influential students to institutionalize his teaching and build up his reputation. As sources, this essay uses two books for biographical and primary source information.[1] Near the end of the essay, ChatGPT will also be consulted as to what made the founders of the schools so successful.
Like most successful jurists, the founders of the four schools tended to possess sharp minds. Al-Shāfiʿī was reportedly a child prodigy, having memorized the Qur'ān by age seven and Mālik's Muwaṭṭaʾ by age ten.[2] Al-Shāfiʿī was also adept in the Arabic language, an accomplished poet, and a strong debater.[3] When he spoke, he always chose the best possible word in every situation.[4] Abū Ḥanīfa was also skilled in debate and was one of the four imams to have recited the entire Qur'ān in a single rakʿa.[5] Ibn Ḥanbal, sometimes said to be the most knowledgeable of the four, supposedly memorized over a million ḥadīth.[6] His fiqh, however, was sometimes said to be less sophisticated than that of the other three founders.[7] Mālik was renowned for his intelligence too, but he did not like disputation and would only answer questions when he was confident that his answer was indisputable.[8] Otherwise, he would answer "I don't know."[9]
The four founders each received quality education, although dogmatic loyalty to teachers was not required. Mālik and Abū Ḥanīfa, the earliest of the four founders, studied under the best teachers of the era in Medina and Iraq.[10] Al-Shāfiʿī, who was a bit younger, studied under Mālik at Medina and under the Abū Ḥanīfa's famous student Al-Shaybānī in Baghdad.[11] Ibn Ḥanbal studied with Al-Shāfiʿī and with the leading Ḥanafites in Baghdad.[12] While the four founders remained respectful of their teachers, they each departed from accepted wisdom. Al-Shāfiʿī began as a loyal follower of Mālik but later adopted ideas from the Ḥanafites. Ibn Ḥanbal, in turn, initially adopted al-Shāfiʿī's approach but later charted his own path.
Each of the four founders also developed important new methodological approaches to fiqh. Mālik focused on the tradition of Medina as a universal model.[13] For Mālik, the practices of Medina, safeguarded by the descendants of so many Companions and Successors, held great authority.[14] Abū Ḥanīfa took a radically different approach to fiqh, utilizing raʾy, or rationalistic analysis, to help achieve logical and legal consistency.[15] Al-Shāfiʿī adopted a balanced approach, combining Mālik's tradition with the raʾy he had learned in Baghdad.[16] In the process, he elevated the ḥadīth as universal sources of law.[17] While Ibn Ḥanbal began with al-Shāfiʿī's balanced approach and emphasis on texts, he eventually rejected raʾy in favor of a traditionalist approach that focused especially on the ḥadīth.[18]
To transmit their ideas, some of the founders published important works of literature. Mālik famously wrote the Muwaṭṭaʾ, the first book to touch upon every subject of Islamic law. According to al-Shāfiʿī, it was the next best book after the Qur'ān.[19] Al-Shāfiʿī produced many works, including two jurisprudential masterpieces, the al-Risāla and the Kitāb al-Umm.[20] According to contemporaries, reciting all of al-Shāfiʿī's works took forty days.[21] The other two founders, however, produced little in terms of notable literature. Abū Ḥanīfa's students transmitted some of his notes, but he did not pass on to them a single coherent work.[22] Ibn Ḥanbal purposely avoided having his ideas written down, although his students transmitted a few collections of ḥadīth and of jurisprudential principles that were attributed to him.[23]
Whatever Abū Ḥanīfa and Ibn Ḥanbal lacked in written literature, they made up for in their students. Each of the four founders had numerous and influential students. Abū Ḥanīfa's two greatest students, al-Shaybānī and Abū Yūsuf, carried on his tradition in Baghdad. Mālik had many famous students, including al-Shaybānī, who spread his ideas across the Islamic world.[24] Al-Shāfiʿī, himself a student of Mālik, also had many great students, especially during his time in Egypt, where he regularly drew hundreds of listeners at his lectures.[25] Al-Shāfiʿī's students actively transmitted his work and continued and enhanced his reputation.[26] Due to his students, al-Shāfiʿī's ideas experience something of a golden age about fifty years after his death.[27] Ibn Ḥanbal too had many influential students.[28]
Social and personal characteristics also contributed to the success of the founders. High social status certainly made the path easier, but it was not essential. Al-Shāfiʿī had the most noble lineage, descending directly from the Prophet's uncle 'Abd al-Muṭṭalib.[29] Mālik came from a prestigious family of early converts in Medina.[30] The other two founders came from more humble origins. Ibn Ḥanbal's father was an Arab officer in the Abbasid army, while Abū Ḥanīfa was the grandson of a non-Muslim prisoner of war from Afghanistan.[31]
While some of the founders held high office and interacted with the caliphs, they usually maintained some distance from politics. Mālik was asked by al-Manṣūr to write the Muwaṭṭaʾ, but he was later imprisoned for doctrinal disagreements.[32] Al-Shāfiʿī served briefly as a governor in Yemen but was implicated in a rebellion, after which he lost political favor and focused on teaching.[33] Abū Ḥanīfa famously refused the caliph's offer of a judgeship, which led to torture and a long imprisonment that lasted the rest of his life.[34] Ibn Ḥanbal also spent a long time in prison over his refusal to accept the createdness of the Qur'ān.[35]
The four founders were also usually renowned for piety, asceticism, humility, and generosity. Abū Ḥanīfa was said to eat only at night and stand in prayer for long periods of time.[36] Mālik, who was often overwhelmed with religious reverence to the point of tears, cleansed himself and said prayers before reading sacred texts to ensure ritual purity.[37] Al-Shāfiʿī was known for his many quotes on poverty and humility, and he reportedly spent one-third of every night in prayer.[38] Ibn Ḥanbal showed particular reverence for the city of Mecca and for visiting the Prophet's grave.[39] Abū Ḥanīfa and al-Shāfiʿī were also said to have been very generous to their students, especially when they were in need.[40]
The many comments on the physical characteristics of the founders suggest that appearances were also important. Abū Ḥanīfa was said to have a strong presence: others felt like "small birds in front of a falcon."[41] Mālik, who supposedly spent over two years in the womb, was said to have fair skin and blue eyes.[42] He was also tall and heavy-set, had a bald head and a thick white bear, and wore majestic clothes.[43] Despite his imposing physical characteristics, however, Mālik lacked social skills and was something of a miser.[44] Al-Shāfiʿī , who was of medium height, was said to be quite handsome.[45] He had soft, dark skin and a jet-black beard that contrasted well with his bright white clothes, which allowed him to strike a compelling figure despite his chronic gastrointestinal problems.[46]
One could identify other factors that contributed to the founders' success. Mālik and Abū Ḥanīfa, for example, may simply have been at the right places at the right time. Given the important of Medina and Baghdad, it is hard to imagine that these two cities would not have produced a school of jurisprudence. But what made the four founders stand out even among their accomplished contemporaries who also taught in important cities? All of the factors discussed above surely played a role, but two stand out as indispensable: a founder needed to 1) develop an important new methodological approach to fiqh, and 2) have many influential students to institutionalize his teaching and build up his reputation. While one or more of the founders lacked in traits like social ability, dialectic skill, or written ouevre, all four founders had developed important new methodological approaches and had many important students. Without these two factors, it is hard to imagine that a jurist could have successfully founded a school.
To my surprise, ChatGPT handled the question with ease, coming up with five important "socio-political" factors: (1) scholarly contributions; (2) methodologies in jurisprudence; (3) socio-political context; (4) institutionalization and legacy; and (5) adaptability and relevance. Within these five factors, ChatGPT touched on many of the topics covered in this paper. Methodological developments in fiqh were covered under "methodologies in jurisprudence," and the importance of students was covered under "institutionalization and legacy." Despite striking similarities between our answers, there were also two major differences: ChatGPT (1) did not address physical, personal, or religious characteristics, and it (2) did not attempt to weigh certain characteristics as more important than others. I was especially impressed that ChatGPT summarized the methodological approaches of the four founders almost exactly as I did. Despite the question being open-ended, ChatGPT immediately grasped the intended focus and scope.
Appendix
ChatGPT Full Answer: What made the founders of the four major Islamic madhāhib so influential?
The founders of the four major Islamic madhāhib (schools of thought)—Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali—were influential due to a combination of factors including their scholarly contributions, their methodologies in jurisprudence, the socio-political contexts of their time, and the lasting impact of their teachings. Here's a closer look at each factor:
- Scholarly Contributions
-Deep Knowledge: Each founder had extensive knowledge of the Qur'an, Hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad), and the broader Islamic tradition. Their scholarship was rooted in rigorous study and intellectual inquiry.
-Systematic Approaches: They developed systematic methodologies for deriving legal rulings. This included the use of reasoning (qiyas), consensus (ijma), and the application of specific principles to derive rulings on various issues. - Methodologies in Jurisprudence
-Diverse Methods: Each school employed distinct methodologies for interpreting texts and applying Islamic law: Hanafi: Emphasized reason and analogy (qiyas), allowing for flexibility and adaptability. Maliki: Gave significant weight to the practices of the people of Medina, viewing it as a source of law reflecting the Sunnah. Shafi'i: Established a clear hierarchy of sources for law, prioritizing the Qur'an and Hadith. Hanbali: Adopted a more literalist approach, emphasizing the texts over personal reasoning. - Socio-Political Context
-Historical Influence: The founders lived in significant historical contexts that shaped their teachings. For instance, Abu Hanifa (Hanafi) lived during the Umayyad period and faced political challenges, while Ahmad ibn Hanbal (Hanbali) was notable for his resistance to rationalist theology.
-Patronage and Support: Some schools gained favor with political authorities, leading to greater institutional support. The Hanafi school, for example, became dominant in the Ottoman Empire. - Institutionalization and Legacy
-Education and Madrasas: The establishment of madrasas (Islamic schools) and formal educational institutions helped propagate their teachings. Students who studied under these founders went on to teach their methodologies, ensuring continuity.
-Cultural and Geographical Spread: Each madhhab expanded geographically and culturally. For example, the Hanafi school spread widely in South Asia and the Ottoman Empire, while the Maliki school became prominent in North and West Africa. - Adaptability and Relevance
-Engagement with Contemporary Issues: The adaptability of these schools to address contemporary issues allowed them to remain relevant in changing times. Their teachings provided frameworks for dealing with new societal challenges while remaining rooted in Islamic tradition.
Conclusion
The founders of the four major Islamic madhāhib were influential not just because of their scholarly prowess but also due to their ability to navigate the complex interplay of religious texts, cultural contexts, and socio-political environments. Their legacies continue to shape Islamic jurisprudence and thought today, underscoring their lasting impact on the Muslim community.
Notes:
* John is a 2L at HLS and hopes to pursue a career in litigation. Originally from Cincinnati, Ohio, John completed a Ph.D. in History at Yale University in 2018 and conducted his dissertation research in Munich, Germany as a Fulbright Scholar.
[1] Ahmed El Shamsy, The Canonization of Islamic Law: A Social and Intellectual History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013); Gibril F. Haddad, The Four Imams and Their Schools (London: Muslim Academic Trust, 2007).
[2] El Shamsy, Canonization, 18-19; Haddad, Four Imams, 189.
[3] Haddad, Four Imams, 216–20.
[4] Ibid., 216.
[5] Ibid., 28, 33, 67.
[6] Ibid., 303.
[7] Ibid., 304.
[8] Ibid., 158, 170.
[9] Ibid., 176.
[10] El Shamsy, Canonization, 46.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Haddad, Four Imams, 302.
[13] El Shamsy, Canonization, 21.
[14] Ibid.
[15] Ibid., 22.
[16] Ibid., 27; Haddad, Four Imams, 196.
[17] El Shamsy, Canonization, 5.
[18] Ibid., 196.
[19] Haddad, Four Imams, 124.
[20] El Shamsy, Canonization, 46.
[21] Ibid., 159.
[22] Ibid., 173.
[23] Haddad, Four Imams, 308.
[24] Ibid., 145–46.
[25] El Shamsy, Canonization, 113.
[26] Ibid., 119–20, 154, 167.
[27] Ibid., 116.
[28] Haddad, Four Imams, 313.
[29] El Shamsy, Canonization, 19.
[30] Ibid.
[31] Ibid., 45; Haddad, Four Imams, 301.
[32] El Shamsy, Canonization, 33.
[33] Ibid., 44.
[34] Ibid., 45.
[35] Haddad, Four Imams, 311–13.
[36] Ibid., 32–34.
[37] Ibid., 161.
[38] Ibid., 240, 244.
[39] Ibid., 408.
[40] Ibid., 48, 244.
[41] Ibid., 28.
[42] Ibid., 23, 121.
[43] Ibid., 162, 177.
[44] Ibid., 160.
[45] Ibid., 244.
[46] Ibid., 245.
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